Diagnóstico y tratamiento de la enfermedad tromboembólica *(Revisión 2007)


REFERENCIAS

  1. PREDILETTO R, PAOLETTI P, FORNAI E, et al. Natural course of treated pulmonary embolism. Chest 1990; 97: 554-61.
  2. OTERO-CANDELERA R, RODRÍGUEZ PANADERO F, RAMOS A, et al. Evolución de la gammagrafía pulmonar en el seguimiento del embolismo pulmonar. Arch Bronconeumol 1997; 33: 129-32.
  3. RIEDEL M. Long term follow-up of patients with pulmonary thromboembolism. Chest 1982; 81: 151-58.
  4. CARSON JL, KELLEY MA, DUFF A, et al. The clinical course of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 1240-45.
  5. WELLS et al. Derivation of a simple clinical model to categorize patients´ probability of pulmonary embolism: increasing the model´s utility with the SimpliRED D-dimer. Thromb Haemost 2000; 83: 416-20.
  6. WICKI et al. Asessing clinical probability of pulmonary embolism in the emergency ward: a simple score. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 92-97.
  7. MINIATI et al. A structured clinical model for predicting the probability of pulmonary embolism. Am J Med 2003; 114: 173-79.
  8. BONAMEAUX H, PERRIER A. Role of D-Dimers in the exclusion of pulmonary embolism. Sem Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 17: 31-37.
  9. Perrier A, Desmarais S, Goehring C, de Moerloose P, Morabia A, Unger P, Slosman D, Junod A, Bounameaux H. D-Dimer testing for suspected pulmonary embolism in outpatients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 492-496.
  10. White RH, McGanan JP, Dashback MM, et al. Diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis using duplex ultrasound. Ann Intern Med 1989; 111: 297-304.
  11. Lensing A, Doris I, McGrath F, et al. A comparison of compression ultrasound with color doppler ultrasound for the diagnosis of symptomless postoperative deep vein thrombosis. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 765-68.
  12. The PIOPED Investigators. Value of the Ventilation/Perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism. JAMA 1990; 263: 2753-59.
  13. Hull RD, Raskob GE, Hirsch J. Low probability lung scans: a need for change. Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 142-143.
  14. MINIATI M, PISTOLESI M, MARINI C, et al. Value of perfusion lung scan in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: results of the prospective investigative study of acute pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PISA-PED). Am J Respir Crit Care Med1996; 154: 1387-93.
  15. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Wattinne L, Giraud F. Central pulmonary thromboembolism: diagnosis with spiral volumetric CT with the simple-breath-hold technique –comparison with pulmonary angiography. Radiology 1992; 185: 381-387.
  16. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Deschildre F, Artaud D, Beregi JP, Hossein-Foucher C, Merchandise X, Duhamel A. Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with spiral CT: comparison with pulmonary angiography and scintigraphy. Radiology 1996; 200: 699-706.
  17. Mayo JR, Remy-Jardin M, Müller NL, Remy J, Worsley DF, Hossein-Foucher C, Kwong JS, Brown MJ. Pulmonary embolism: prospective comparison of spiral CT with ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy. Radiology 1997; 205: 447-452.
  18. Kim KI, Müller NL, Mayo JR. The utility of spiral CT in clinically suspected pulmonary embolism. Radiology 1999; 210: 693-697.
  19. Goodman LR, Curtin JJ, Mewissen MW, Foley WD, Lipchik RJ, Crain MR, Sagar KB, Collier BD. Detection of pulmonary embolism in patients with unresolved clinical and scintigraphic diagnosis: helical CT versus angiography. AJR 1995; 1369-1374.
  20. Teigen CL, Maus TP, Sheedy PF, Stanson AW, Johnson CM, Breen JF, and McKusik MA. Pulmonary embolism: diagnosis with contrast-enhanced electron-beam CT and comparison with pulmonary angiography. Radiology 1995; 194: 313-319.
  21. Van Rossum AB, Pattynama PM, Ton ER, Treurniet FE, Arndt JW, van Eck B, Kieft GJ. Pulmonary embolism: validation of spiral CT angiography in 149 patients. Radiology 1996; 201: 467-470.
  22. Drucker EA, Rivitz SM, Shepard JAO, Boiselle PM, Trotman-Dickenson B, Welch TJ, Maus TP, Miller SW, Kaufman JA, Waltman AC, McLoud TC, Athanasoulis CA. Acute pulmonary embolism: assessment of helical CT diagnosis. Radiology 1998; 209: 235-241.
  23. Garg K, Welsh CH, Feyerbend AJ, et al. Pulmonary embolism: diagnosis with spiral CT and ventilation-perfusion scanning -correlation with pulmonary angiographic results or clinical outcome. Radiology 1998; 208: 201-208.
  24. Rathbun SW, Raskow GE, Whitselt TL. Sensitivity and specificity of helical computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 227-232.
  25. de Monye W, van Strijen MJ, Huisman MV, Kieft GJ, Pattynama PM. Suspected pulmonary embolism: prevalence and anatomic distribution in 487 consecutive patients. Radiology 2000; 215: 184-188.
  26. Ferretti GR, Bosson JL, Buffaz PD, Ayamian D, Pison C, Blanc F, et al. Acute pulmonary embolism: role of helical CT in 164 patients with intermediate probability at ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy and normal results at duplex US of the legs. Radiology 1999; 205: 453-458.
  27. Garg K, Sieler H, Welsh C, Johnston RJ, Russ PD. Clinical validity of helical CT being interpreted as negative for pulmonary embolism: Implications for patient treatment. AJR 1999; 172: 1627-1631.
  28. Lomis NN, Yoon HC, Moran AG, Miller FJ. Clinical outcomes of patients after a negative spiral CT pulmonary arteriogram in the evaluation of acute pulmonary embolism. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1999; 10: 707-712.
  29. Goodman LR, Lipchick RJ, Kuzo RS, Liu Y, McAuliffe TL, O´Brien DJ. Subsequent pulmonary embolism: risk after a negative helical angiogram –prospective comparison with scintigraphy. Radiology 2000; 215: 535-542.
  30. Swensen SJ, Sheedy PF, Ryu JH, Pickett DD, Schleck CD, Ilstrup DM, Heit JA. Outcomes after withholding anticoagulation from patients with suspected acute pulmonary embolism and negative computed tomographic findings: a cohort study. Mayo Clin Proc 2002; 77: 130-138.
  31. Gottsater A, Berg A, Centergard J, Frennby B, Nirhov N, Nyman M. Clinicalyy suspected pulmonary embolism: is it safe to withhold anticoagulation after a negative spiral CT? Eur Radiol 2001; 11: 65-72.
  32. Ost D, Rozenshtein A, Saffran L, Snider A. The negative predictive value of spiral computed tomography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in patients with nondiagnostic ventilation-perfusion scans: Am J Med 2001; 110: 16-21.
  33. Tillie-Leblond I, Mastora I, Radenne F, Paillard S, Tonnel AB, Remy J, Remy-Jardin M. Risk of pulmonary embolism after a negative spiral CT angiogram in patients with pulmonary disease: 1-year clinical follow-up study. Radiology 2002; 223: 461-467.
  34. Musset D, Parent F, Meyer G, Maître S, Girard P, Leroyer Ch, Revel M-P, Carette M-F, Laurent M, Charbonier B, Laurent F, Mal H, Nonent M, Lancar R, Grenier P, Simonneau G. Diagnostic strategy for patients with suspected pulmonary embolism: a prospective multicenter outcome study. Lancet 2002; 360:1914-20.
  35. van Strijen MJL, de Monyé W, Schiereck J, Kieft GJ, Prins MH, Huisman MV, Pattynama PMT. Single-detector helical computed tomography as the primary diagnostic test in suspected pulmonary embolism: a multicenter clinical management study of 510 patients. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 307-14.
  36. Pérez de Llano LA, Veres A, López M, et al . Safety of withholding anticoagulant therapy in patients who have clinically suspected pulmonary embolism and negative results on helical CT. Eur Respir J 2003; Suppl 45. 218s.
  37. Heran F, Brenot F, Musset D, et al. Diagnostic value of selective digital substraction angiography in acute pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137 (suppl): 186.
  38. Stein PD, Henry JW, Gottschalk A. Reassessment of pulmonary angiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Radiology 1999; 210: 689-691.
  39. Stein PD, Woodard PK, Hull RD, Kayali F, Weg JG, Olson RE, Fowler SE. Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography for detection of acute pulmonary embolism: an in-depth review. Chest. 2003 Dec;124(6):2324-8.
  40. Fedullo PF, Tapson VF. The evaluation of suspected pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1247-56.
  41. COLLINS R, SCRIMGOUR A, YuSUF S, et al. Reduction in fatal pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis by perioperative administration of subcutaneous heparin. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 1162-73.
  42. William H. Geerts, John A. Heit, MD, G. Patrick Clagett, Graham F. Pineo, Clifford W. Colwell, Frederick A. Anderson, and H. Brownell Wheeler. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Chest 2201; 119: 132S-175S.
  43. Raskob GE, Hirsh J. Controversies in timing of the first dose of anticoagulant prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major orthopedic surgery. Chest 2003; 124: 379S-385S.
  44. Turpie AG, Bauer KA, Eriksson BL, Lassen MR. Fondaparinux vs enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in major orthopaedic surgery: a meta-analysis of 4 randomized double-blind studies. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 1833-40.
  45. Francis CW, Berkowitz SD, Comp PC, et al. Comparison of ximelagatran with warfarin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total knee replacement. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1703-12.
  46. Colwell CW, Berkowitz SD, Davidson BL, et al. Randomized, double-blind, comparison of ximelagatran and enoxaparin to prevent VTE after total hip arthroplasty. Blood 2001; 98 (11): P 2952 (abstract).
  47. Kakkar VV, Howe CT, Flanc C, et al. Natural history of postoperative deep vein thrombosis. Lancet 1969; 6: 230-32.
  48. Carson JL, Kelly MA, Duff A, et al. The clinical course of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 1240-45).
  49. Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. ICOPER. Lancet 1999; 353: 1386-89.
  50. Moser KM, Auger WH, Fedullo PF. Chronic major-vessel thromboembolic hypertension. Circulation 1990; 81: 1735-43.
  51. Grifoni S, Olivotto I, Cecchini P, Pieralli F, Camaiti A, Santoro G, Conti A, Agnelli G, Berni G. Short-term clinical outcome of patients with acute pulmonary embolism, normal blood pressure, and echocardiographic right ventricular dysfunction. Circulation. 2000 Jun 20;101(24):2817-22.
  52. Collomb D, Paramelle PJ, Calaque O, Bosson JL, Vanzetto G, Barnoud D, Pison C, Coulomb M, Ferretti G. Severity assessment of acute pulmonary embolism: evaluation using helical CT. Eur Radiol. 2003 Jul;13(7):1508-14.
  53. Mastora I, Remy-Jardin M, Masson P, Galland E, Delannoy V, Bauchart JJ, Remy J. Severity of acute pulmonary embolism: evaluation of a new spiral CT angiographic score in correlation with echocardiographic data. : Eur Radiol. 2003 Jan;13(1):29-35.
  54. Wicki J, Perrier A, Perneger TV, et al. Predicting adverse outcome in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: a risk score. Thromb Haemost 2000; 84: 548-52.
  55. Giannitsis E, Muller-Bardorff M, Kurowski V, Weidtmann B, Wiegand U, Kampmann M, Katus HA. Independent prognostic value of cardiac troponin T in patients with confirmed pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2000 Jul 11;102(2):211-7.
  56. Kucher N, Printzen G, Goldhaber SZ. Prognostic role of brain natriuretic peptide in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation. 2003 May 27;107(20):2545-7.
  57. Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Cogo A, et al. The long term clinical course of acute venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 1-7.
  58. Kearon C, Gent M, Hirsh J, et al. A comparison of three months of anticoagulation with extended anticoagulation for a first episode of idiopathic venous thrmboembolism. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 901-7.
  59. Eichinger S, Weltermann A, Minar E, et al. Symptomatic pulmonary embolism and the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 92-96.
  60. Ribeiro A, Lindmarker P, Johnsson H, et al. Pulmonary embolism: one-year follow-up with echocardiography Doppler and five-year survival analysis. Circulation 2000; 101: 2817-22.
  61. Goldhaber SZ, Haire WD, Feldstein ML, et al. Alteplase versus heparin in acute pulmonary embolism: Randomized trial assessing right ventricular function and pulmonary perfusion. Lancet 1993; 341: 507-11.
  62. Dalla-Volta S, Palla A, Santolicandro A, et al. PAIMS 2: alteplase combined with heparin versus heparin in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 20: 520-26.
  63. Veillard-Baron A, Page B, Augarde R, et al. Acute cor pulmonale in massive pulmonary embolism: incidence, echocardiographic pattern, clinical implications and recovery rate. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27 (9): 1481-86.
  64. Verstraete M, Miller GAH, Bounameaux H, et al. Intravenous and intrapulmonary recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator in the treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation 1988; 77: 353-60.
  65. Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Heusel G, et al. Heparin plus alteplase compared with heparin alone in patients with submassive pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 1143-50.
  66. The Columbus Investigators. Low-molecular-weight heparin in the treatment of patients with venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 657-62.
  67. Simonneau G, Sors H, Charbonier B, et al. A comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin with unfractionated heparin for acute pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 663-69.
  68. Quinlan DJ, McQuillan A, Eikelboom JW. Low-molecular-weight heparin compared with intravenous unfractionated heparin for treatment of pulmonary embolism. A Meta-Analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140: 175-83.
  69. Hull R, Raskob G, Rosenbloom D, et al. Heparin for 5 days as compared with 10 days in the initial treatment of proximal venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1260-64.
  70. Linkins LA, Choi PT, Douketis JD. Clinical impact of bleeding in patients taking oral anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 893-900.
  71. Schulman S, Rhedin A-S, Lindmarker P, et al. A comparison of six weeks with six months of oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 1661-65.
  72. Pinede L, Duhaut P, Cucherat M, et al. Comparison of long versus short duration of anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials.
  73. The Research Committee of British Thoracic Society .Optimum duration of anticoagulation for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Lancet 1992; 340: 873-76.
  74. Ridker PM, Goldhaber SZ, Danielson E, et al. Long-term, low-intensity warfarin therapy for the prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 1425-34.
  75. Kearon C, Ginsberg JS, Kovacs MJ, et al. Comparison of low-intensity warfarin therapy with conventional-intensity- warfarin therapy for long-term prevention of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 631-39.
  76. Schulman S, Granqvist S, Holmstrom M, et al. The duration of oral anticoagulant therapy after a second episode of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 373-81.
  77. Brill-Edwards P, Ginsberg JS, Gent M, et al. Safety of withholding heparin in pegnant women with history of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1439-44.
  78. Matisse Investigators. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 1695-1702
  79. Schulman S, Wählander K, Lunström T, et al. Secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism with the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran. N Engl J Med 2003: 349: 1713-21.
  80. Decousos H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, et al. A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 409-15.
  81. Moser KM, Daily PO, Peterson K, et al. Thromboendarterectomy for chronic, major-vessel thromboembolic pulmonary hipertension. Ann Intem Med 1987; 107: 560-65.
  82. Ghofrani HA, Schermuly RT, Rose F, et al. Sildenafil for long-term treatment of nonoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136: 515-22.
  83. Bonderman D, Nowotny R, Skoro-sajer N, et al. Bosentan therapy for inoperable chronci thromboembolic pulmonary hipertensión. Chest 2005; 128: 2599-603.
  84. Hoeper MM, Kramm T, Wilkens H, et al. Bosentan therapy for inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2005; 128: 2363-67.
  85. Lopez JA, Kearon C, Lee AY. Deep venous thrombosis. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program). 2004; 439-56.
  86. Bauer KA. The thrombophilias: well-defined risk factors with uncertain therapeutic implications. Ann Intern Med. 2001 Sep 4; 135(5):367-73.
  87. Perrier A, Roy PM, Sanchez O, et al. Multidetector-row computed tomography in suspected pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med. 2005 Apr 28; 352(17):1760-8.
  88. Ghanima W, Almaas V, Aballi S, et al. Management of suspected pulmonary embolism (PE) by D-dimer and multi-slice computed tomography in outpatients: an outcome study. J Thromb Haemost. 2005 Sep; 3(9): 1926-32.
  89. van Belle A, Buller HR, Huisman MV, et al. Effectiveness of managing suspected pulmonary embolism using an algorithm combining clinical probability, D-dimer testing, and computed tomography. JAMA. 2006 Jan 11; 295(2):172-9.
  90. Nijkeuter M, Hovens MM, Davidson BL, et al. Resolution of thromboemboli in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Chest. 2006 Jan;129(1):192-7.
  91. Kucher N, Rossi E, De Rosa M, et al. Prognostic role of echocardiography among patients with acute pulmonary embolism and a systolic arterial pressure of 90 mm Hg or higher. Arch Intern Med. 2005 Aug 8-22;165(15):1777-81.
  92. Palareti, G, et al «D-Dimer Testing to Determine the Duration of Anticoagulation Therapy» N Engl J Med 2006; 355:1780-1789.
Cargando…